TITRIMETRIC ANALYSIS OF CHLORIDE

Introduction

The purpose of this experiment is to compare two titrimetric methods for the analysis of chloride in a water-soluble solid. The two methods are:

• a weight titration method using a chemical indicator;
• a volumetric titration method using potentiometric detection.

The most important difference between the methods is how the endpoint is determined. In the first case, the color change of the indicator signifies that the titration is complete, while the second method generates a titration curve from which the endpoint is determined. For the potentiometric method, an automatic titrator will be used to perform the titration, and to obtain the titration curve.

Background

Argentometric Titrations

In order for a titrimetric method to be viable, the titration reaction
(1) must be complete (i.e., Ktitration is large) and
(2) should be rapid.

There are many precipitation reactions that can satisfy the first requirement, but far fewer that satisfy the second. Precipitation reactions of silver salts are usually quite rapid, and so argentometric titrations, which use AgNO3 as the titrant, are the most common precipitation titrations.

Argentometric titrations can be used to analyze samples for the presence of a number of anions that form precipitates with Ag+

Weight Titrations The goal of any titrimetric method is to determine the number of moles of titrant needed to reach the equivalence point of the titration reaction:

titration reaction aA + tT → product(s)

where a and t are the stoichiometric coefficients in the reaction between titrant and analyte. In a titrimetric analysis, solution of titrant is added until the equivalence point of the titration reaction is reached. At the equivalence point, neither analyte nor titrant is present in excess. By definition, the equivalence point is the point during the titration at which the following relationship is true: equivalence point

nA/a = nT/t

where nA is the number of moles of analyte originally present in the sample solution, and nT is the number of moles of titrant that must be added to the sample to reach the equivalence point.
From this last expression, we see that, in order to determine the number of moles of analyte originally present in the sample solution, we must
(a) know the stoichiometry of the reaction, and
(b) determine how many moles of titrant are needed to reach the endpoint. In order to meet this last requirement, we must somehow keep track of the quantity of titrant solution that is added to the sample solution.

Diabetes helpful Nutrition

In regards to diabetics, consuming the appropriate foods is indispensable for sustaining optimum health. Not only would you have to think about the nutrition your own body desires, you've also got to account for how foods will influence your blood sugar levels. Listed here are a small number of aspects to consider when you are scheduling your daily food lists.

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It's recommended that people with diabetes follow the Diabetes Food Pyramid, which is for use with the USDA's Food Pyramid. Those who follow the Diabetic Food Pyramid can then pick up plenty of the nutrients, protein, fiber, carbohydrates, and fats that the body requires to optimize blood sugar levels and nutrition.

After you have established a base amount, then it is possible to determine what is nourishing for a diabetic. Generally 100-150 day by day is enough. Around 30 in the morning; 45 at lunch; and maybe 45 at dinner; everybody is different so talk to your nutritionist for further details. In your mission to better nourishment you must also imagine what forms of food to eat. A lot of people usually do not recognize that natural sugars trigger elevated sugar levels also?

A good dietary and dietetic planning is very necessary for diabetes. One should chalk out a meal chart and follow it religiously. Increasing the consumption of starchy veggies, cereals like black beans, garbanzo beans and breads are advisable.

The best way to keep your diabetes under control is by eating small amounts of sugar.It is also a good idea to have a mix of carbohydrates, fats and proteins at each meal.

Most of the sugar that the body uses to convert to energy will come from the carbohydrates that are consumed so this food group ought to be monitored. A plan will specify the portions of carbohydrates and the number of portions that can be consumed in one sitting.

A further part of diabetic nourishment is to eat on a normal basis. This means that your blood sugar analysis is going to be steady always. Diabetic nourishment isn't so much based on restricting the amount of sugar that the body will get but in what manner and what kind of foods can offer the sugar that our bodies really need to generate energy. Specifically, remember to maintain recurring appointments with your general practitioner. Your health practitioner is your best source of advice and information in relation to your situation and your dietitian is your ideal source of info in relation to the foods which you should be eating.

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A Popular Drug For Chemotherapy: Alimta

Did you know that chemotherapy is not effective in all types of cancers? In some cases it is quite unnecessary and useless. Alimta for chemotherapy has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer and pleural mesothelioma. The drug is a popular brand of a chemotherapy drug called Pemetrexed. The manufacturer and marketer of this brand is Eli Lilly and Company.

Alimta: Chemotherapy Precautions

Any type of chemotherapy will have certain side effects. Same happens in case of chemotherapy with Alimta Pemetrxed. However, certain precautions can and should be taken in order to minimize these reactions and ensure the best possible treatment.

some of these precautions:

Talk to your doctor candidly: You should be very open with your doctor and tell him about any other diseases you might be suffering from. You must talk to your healthcare provider about pleural effusion, ascites, any allergies you might be suffering from and kidney diseases. It is important that your doctor knows if you are pregnant or planning to get pregnant or recently had a baby and are now breastfeeding. Additionally, you must make ensure that you are not allergic to any of the ingredients of Alimta. In case you are on some medication, vitamins or herbal supplements, it is important that you tell your doctor about it. Prescription or non prescription, your health care provider must know about it.
Take Vitamin B12: You can minimize most of the side effects of chemotherapy with Alimta by taking Vitamin B12 along with the process. However, you must ask your doctor about it first and take the vitamin tablets only if he recommends.

Alimta: Chemotherapy Warnings

Before you begin your chemotherapy with Alimta, you must be aware of a few things. Not everyone's body reacts the same way to chemotherapy with this drug. Hence, you must have a thorough discussion with your doctor to know the things to expect.
Sometimes chemotherapy can reduce your blood count. If it reduces your red blood cell count you might suffer from anemia and if it reduces your white blood cell count your immunity might decrease. This can be dangerous and even life threatening. In such a case, your doctor might have to reduce your dose or perhaps delay the next dosage.
Alimta could also cause some skin rashes or other similar problems. For this, your doctor might recommend corticosteroid in order to reduce this side effect.
This chemotherapy drug could also interact with other medicines you might be taking. Hence, your doctor will have to know what all you are on and how it might affect the process. You might or might not have to discontinue with other medication.

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Cephalosporins

The effectiveness of penicillin in the treatment of infections prompted research directed toward finding new antibiotics with a wider range of antibacterial activity. The cephalosporins are a valuable group of drugs that are effective in the treatment of almost all of the strains of bacteria affected by the penicillins, as well as some strains of bacteria that have become resistant to penicillin.

The cephalosporins are structurally and chemically related to penicillin. The cephalosporins are divided into first-, second-, and third-generation drugs. Particular cephalosporins also may
be differentiated within each group according to the microorganisms that are sensitive to them. Generally, progression from the first-generation to the second-generation and then to the third-generation drugs shows an increase in the sensitivity of gram-negative microorganisms and a
decrease in the sensitivity of gram-positive microorganisms. For example, a first-generation cephalosporin would have more use against gram-positive microorganisms than would a third generation cephalosporin. This scheme of classification is becoming less clearly defined as newer drugs are introduced.

First-Generation Cephalosporins

1 cefadroxil
2 cefazolin sodium
3 cephalexin

Second-Generation Cephalosporins

1 cefaclor
2 cefamandole
3 cefotetan
4 cefoxitin
5 cefpodoxime
6 cefprozil
7 cefuroxime
8 loracarbef

Third-Generation Cephalosporins

1 cefdinir
2 cefepime hydrochloride
3 cefixime
4 cefoperazone
5 cefotaxime
6 ceftazidime
7 ceftibuten hydrochloride
8 ceftizoxime
9 ceftriaxone

ACTIONS

Cephalosporins affect the bacterial cell wall, making it defective and unstable. This action is similar to the action of penicillin. The cephalosporins are usually bactericidal (capable of destroying bacteria).

USES

The cephalosporins are used in the treatment of infections caused by susceptible microorganisms. Examples of microorganisms that may be susceptible to the cephalosporins include streptococci, staphylococci,citrobacters, gonococci, shigella, and clostridia. Culture and sensitivity tests are performed whenever possible to determine which antibiotic, including a cephalosporin, will best control an infection caused by a specific strain of bacteria. Pharyngitis, tonsillitis, otitis media, lower respiratory infections, urinary tract infections, septicemia, and gonorrhea are examples of the types of infections that may be treated with the cephalosporins.

The cephalosporins also may be used perioperatively, that is, during the preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative periods, to prevent infection in patients having surgery on a contaminated or potentially contaminated area, such as the gastrointestinal tract or vagina. In some instances, a specific drug may be recommended for postoperative prophylactic use only.

ADVERSE REACTIONS

The most common adverse reactions seen with administration of the cephalosporins are gastrointestinal disturbances, such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.

Hypersensitivity (allergic) reactions may occur with administration of the cephalosporins and range from mild to life threatening. Mild hypersensitivity reactions include pruritus, urticaria, and skin rashes. More serious hypersensitivity reactions include Stevens- Johnson syndrome (fever, cough, muscular aches and pains, headache, and the appearance of lesions on the
skin, mucous membranes, and eyes), hepatic and renal dysfunction, aplastic anemia (anemia due to deficient red blood cell production), and epidermal necrolysis (death of the epidermal layer of the skin).

Because of the close relation of the cephalosporins to penicillin, a patient allergic to penicillin also may be allergic to the cephalosporins.

Other adverse reactions that may be seen with administration of the cephalosporins are headache,
dizziness, nephrotoxicity (damage to the kidneys by a toxic substance), malaise, heartburn, and fever. Intramuscular (IM) administration often results in pain, tenderness, and inflammation at the injection site. Intravenous (IV) administration has resulted in thrombophlebitis and phlebitis.

Therapy with cephalosporins may result in a bacterial or fungal superinfection. Diarrhea may be an indication of pseudomembranous colitis, which is one type of bacterial superinfection.

CONTRAINDICATIONS

The nurse should not administer cephalosporins if the patient has a history of allergies to cephalosporins or penicillins.

PRECAUTIONS

The nurse should use cephalosporins cautiously in patients with renal or hepatic impairment and in patients with bleeding disorders. Safety of cephalosporin administration has not been established in pregnancy or lactation; these drugs are assigned to Pregnancy Category B.

INTERACTIONS

The risk of nephrotoxicity increases when the cephalosporins are administered with the aminoglycosides. The risk for bleeding increases when the cephalosporins are taken with oral anticoagulants. A disulfiram-like reaction may occur if alcohol is consumed within 72 hours after cephalosporin administration. Symptoms of a disulfiram-like reactions include flushing, throbbing in the head and neck, respiratory difficulty, vomiting, sweating, chest pain, and hypotension. Severe reactions may cause arrhythmias and unconsciousness. When the cephalosporins are administered with the aminoglycosides, the risk for nephrotoxicity increases.

Stability Commitment

Stability Commitment

When available long term stability data on primary batches do not cover the proposed shelf life granted at the time of approval, a commitment should be made to continue the stability studies post approval in order to firmly establish the shelf life. Where the submission includes long term stability data from three production batches covering the proposed shelf life, a post approval commitment is considered unnecessary. Otherwise, one of the following commitments should be made:

1. If the submission includes data from stability studies on at least three production batches, a commitment should be made to continue the long term studies through the proposed shelf life and the accelerated studies for 6 months.

2. If the submission includes data from stability studies on fewer than three production batches, a commitment should be made to continue the long term studies through the proposed shelf life and the accelerated studies for 6 months, and to place additional production batches, to a total of at least three, on long term stability studies through the proposed shelf life and on accelerated studies for 6 months.

3. If the submission does not include stability data on production batches, a commitment should be made to place the first three production batches on long term stability studies through the proposed shelf life and on accelerated studies for 6 months. The stability protocol used for studies on commitment batches should be the same as that for the primary batches, unless otherwise scientifically justified. Where intermediate testing is called for by a significant change at the accelerated storage condition for the primary batches, testing on the commitment batches can be conducted at either the intermediate or the accelerated storage condition. However, if significant change occurs at the accelerated storage condition on the commitment batches, testing at the intermediate storage condition should also be conducted.

Evaluation

A systematic approach should be adopted in the presentation and evaluation of the stability information, which should include, as appropriate, results from the physical, chemical, biological, and microbiological tests, including particular attributes of the dosage form (for example, dissolution rate for solid oral dosage forms). The purpose of the stability study is to establish, based on testing a minimum of three batches of the drug product, a shelf life and label storage instructions applicable to all future batches of the drug product manufactured and packaged under similar circumstances. The degree of variability of individual batches affects the confidence that a future production batch will remain within specification throughout its shelf life. Where the data show so little degradation and so little variability that it is apparent from looking at the data that the requested shelf life will be granted, it is normally unnecessary to go through the formal statistical analysis; providing a justification for the omission should be sufficient.

An approach for analyzing data of a quantitative attribute that is expected to change with time is to determine the time at which the 95 one-sided confidence limit for the mean curve intersects the acceptance criterion. If analysis shows that the batch-to-batch variability is small, it is advantageous to combine the data into one overall estimate. This can be done by first applying appropriate statistical tests (e.g., p values for level of significance of rejection of more than 0.25) to the slopes of the regression lines and zero time intercepts for the individual batches. If it is inappropriate to combine data from several batches, the overall
shelf life should be based on the minimum time a batch can be expected to remain within acceptance criteria.

The nature of the degradation relationship will determine whether the data should be transformed for linear regression analysis. Usually the relationship can be represented by a linear, quadratic, or cubic function on an arithmetic or logarithmic scale. Statistical methods should be employed to test the goodness of fit on all batches and combined batches (where appropriate) to the assumed degradation line or curve.

Limited extrapolation of the real time data from the long term storage condition beyond the observed range to extend the shelf life can be undertaken at approval time, if justified. This justification should be based on what is known about the mechanisms of degradation, the results of testing under accelerated conditions, the goodness of fit of any mathematical model, batch size, existence of supporting stability data, etc. However, this extrapolation assumes that the same degradation relationship will continue to apply beyond the observed data.

Any evaluation should consider not only the assay but also the degradation products and other
appropriate attributes. Where appropriate, attention should be paid to reviewing the adequacy
of the mass balance and different stability and degradation performance.